Table of contents
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58248/HS78
Overview
Contributors to the scan noted that reducing hazards to human health and natural ecosystems from waste and pollution remains challenging,[1] as does progress towards targets such as ‘zero pollution’, ‘zero avoidable waste’ or a ‘good chemical environment’. [2][3][4][5][6]
For example, despite reductions in some air pollutants, air pollution remains the greatest UK environmental public health threat.[7] The main pollutants of concern in urban areas are particulate matter (microscopic particles suspended in air), oxides of nitrogen and ozone.[8] These have legal limit values, but low concentrations can have health impacts and no levels safe for human health have been identified (PN 691). Indoor air pollution from sources such as appliances and products are less well understood,[9] but pose greater health risks to groups such as those with lower socio-economic status (PB 54).[4][10][11][12]
The Office for Environmental Protection (OEP) stated water pollution remains a major challenge in England.[13] For example, discharge of untreated sewage into watercourses, remains widespread (CBP-10027),[14] increasing concentrations of pollutants.[15] Applying treated sewage sludge to agricultural soils promotes the circular use of nutrients, but may contain pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals, persistent chemicals and microplastics.[16][17][18][19]
The OEP has also stated that progress towards waste targets in England is offtrack.[20] For example, recycling rates have not improved in England since 2011 and remain below the 2020 50% target.[21][22] For the 2022/23 year, local authorities in England dealt with 1.08 million fly-tipping incidents (the illegal disposal of waste).[23]
Contributors to the scan suggested that systematic approaches based on a better understanding of the drivers of waste and pollution, and better data, may provide opportunities for progress.[24] For example, better consumer data[25] may encourage increased demand for sustainable products (PN 646). These products may save energy during operation and production and minimise environmental impacts through their whole lifecycle.[26]
Challenges and opportunities
Contributors to the scan emphasised the need to address the drivers of pollution and waste, including through approaches such as a circular economy (PN 646), which broadly aims to narrow, slow, close and reintegrate material and energy loops.[27][28] For example, sustainable products that are designed for durability and minimise waste by encouraging re-use, repair and recycling as well as the data and information to facilitate this.[29]
The 2023 Maximising Resources, Minimising Waste policy for England included measures to support investment in recycling infrastructure, and ‘digital’ passports for products to support reuse and extraction of secondary materials including critical mineral content (PN 609).[30][31] The government has stated it will be publishing a circular economy strategy.[32][33]
However, research suggests solely increasing recycling infrastructure will not reduce ‘absolute’ resource use (the primary raw materials extracted annually linked to economic growth). Studies also state achieving sixteen out of the seventeen UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) require far-reaching changes to the way that resource flows and waste are organised to reduce waste generation.[34][35][36][37][38][39]
Increasing resource efficiency could require other infrastructure investment, such as a national materials datahub,[40][41][42][43][44] and the public and private sector providing the environment and infrastructure to enable individuals to make resource efficient choices (PN 714).[34][45][46] For example, UK per-capita clothing consumption is 2–3 times the global average and studies suggest reducing new clothing consumption by ∼4% would be as effective as doubling recycling activity.[47] Zero Waste Europe recommend establishing a ‘sufficiency’ culture to halt overconsumption.[48]
In 2023, the EU proposed a new Green Claims Directive to require companies to use verified data and labelling methodologies to support environmental sustainability claims.[49] There has been misuse of sustainability terminology in relation to fashion products, and UNEP has released guidance around its use, which also aims to increase consumer aspirations for sustainable lifestyles.[50]
Materials used in fashion products may have environmental impacts, such as polyester that degrades into microfibres that pollute air, soil and water.[51] Contributors to the scan suggested gaps remain in UK textile recycling such as in fibre-to-fibre recycling infrastructure.[52] For the UK fashion sector to extend the life of clothes, skills and capacity in eco-design, repair and remaking and re-processing would need to be developed, and these activities environmentally assessed (such as water and chemical use).[53][54][55]
Contributors also stated that expanding the diversity of materials used in fashion may reduce some environmental impacts. For example, regenerative textiles that can be obtained from the chemical recycling of waste textiles, or by reusing and repairing discarded textiles.[56][57][58][59][60] However, increasing material diversity can reduce recycling potential by increasing the complexity and cost of recycling of garments.[61]
Materials from natural sources produced using regenerative farming approaches could also be used, and it was suggested that this approach and other agricultural innovations may reduce chemical use.[46] Contributors to the scan also emphasised regenerative business models, which can be described as businesses having positive social, economic and environmental impacts via the lifecycle of their products or services.[62][63][64]
There is a legacy of persistent pollutants widely distributed in the environment (PN 579),[65][66] and risks may increase with climate change impacts such as erosion of landfill sites.[67][68] An estimated 19-23 million tonnes of plastic enters aquatic ecosystems annually as micro- and nanoplastic particles (PN 724, CBP-8515).[69]
Cigarette filters are a single use plastic, the most abundant litter item globally and a source of microplastic pollution,[70][71][72][73][74][75] as well as containing toxic chemicals including heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, aldehydes, and glycols.[63] Organisations have called for cigarette filters to be banned under single use plastic legislation (PN 724).[76][77][78][79]
Disposable electronic cigarettes are classified as waste electrical and electronic equipment and can release plastic and chemicals into the environment (CDP 2022/0216), with five million single-use vapes either littered or thrown away every week in the UK in 2023.[80] Studies suggest discarded e-liquid in refills for vapes may also pose environmental risks.[81][82] The sale of disposable vapes will be banned from 1 April 2025 (CBP 9992).[83]
Industry commentators have suggested that designing products without harmful chemicals is required to achieve the government’s “zero avoidable waste” target.[84][28] A precautionary approach would require identifying products that may release of pollutants into the environment.[85] For example, ‘safe and sustainable-by-design’ (SSbD) criteria for chemicals cover the different dimensions of sustainability, integrating safety, circularity and functionality of substances, advanced materials, products and processes throughout their lifecycle.[86][87][88]
The EU Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation requires some products to have a digital record that provides comprehensive information about a product and its entire value chain from 2026.[89] This includes everything from the origin of the product, materials used, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.[7][90] Without relevant data, there is a risk that material may be ‘downcycled’ because of potential hazardous components.[91][92][93][94] The regulation requires companies with complex supply chains to understand each stage of their value chain to gather the data.[95][96]
The Product Regulation and Metrology Bill contains powers to update and amend relevant product regulations in line with EU requirements, but does not explicitly include chemicals legislation.[97][98][99]
Key uncertainties/unknowns
- The persistence and effects of plastic leachates, the complex mixtures of chemicals released by micro- and nanoplastics in the environment, are poorly understood.[100][101][102][103][104][105] The full extent of human exposure to chemicals is also not well understood.[106][107][108] For example, to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) used in the manufacture of many products from textiles and food packaging to fire-fighting foam.[109][110]
- Possible ’regrettable substitutions’ in materials. For example, contributors suggested research indicates existing bio-based plastics and biodegradable plastics may cause microplastic pollution or contaminate fossil fuel-based plastic recycling streams (PN 724).[111][112][113][114][115][116][117]
- Cost effective solutions for removing persistent pollutants from the environment.[118][119] For example, using micro-organism to remove toxic metals such as lead from soils and wastewater,[120] to degrade PFAS,[121] or to degrade plastics and microplastics.[122][123] Technologies are also being developed,[124] such as hydrothermal alkaline treatment or ultrasound irradiation to eliminate PFAS,[125][126] magnetic nanobots to remove nanoplastic particles from water, graphene materials to absorb toxic metals and metal-organic frameworks to remove various pollutants.[127][128] Technologies are also being developed to recover substances from waste, for uses such as feedstocks for chemical production, which may reduce future pollution control costs.[129][130][93][131]
Key questions for Parliament
- To what extent the impact of current trends in consumption and waste generation can be mitigated through increasing recycling infrastructure?
- What infrastructure and regulation are required for circularity data tools on the volumes and qualities of material flows to track progress on waste reduction, re-use, repair and recycling?[132],[133],[134],[135]
- What are the options to achieve absolute resource use reduction by addressing the behavioural, business model and policy drivers of overconsumption,[6] unsustainable production and waste generation?
- What would be the implications of adopting a target for reduced consumption per capita? [136] What measures should be included in a UK chemical strategy?[137][138][139][140]
Relevant documents
House of Commons Library, Environment Bill 2021-22: Lords amendments and “ping pong” stages
Environmental Audit Committee, Sustainability of the fashion sector: follow up
House of Commons Library, Right to Repair Regulations, CBP-9302
House of Commons Library, Plastic waste, CBP-8515
House of Commons Library, Air Quality: policies, proposals and concerns, CBP-9000
House of Commons Library, Sewage discharges, CBP-10027
House of Commons Library, Environmental impact of disposable vapes, CDP-2022-0216
House of Commons Library, Tobacco and Vapes Bill, CBP-9992
Regulating product sustainability, POSTnote 646
Urban outdoor air quality, POSTnote 691
Indoor Air Quality, POSTbrief 54
Access to critical materials, POSTnote 609
Enabling green choices for net zero, POSTnote 714
Persistent Chemical Pollutants, POSTnote 579
Reducing plastic waste, POSTnote 724
References
[1] European Environment Agency. (2022). Zero pollution monitoring assessment.
[2] Defra. (2023). At a glance: summary of targets in our 25-year environment plan.
[3] European Commission. Zero pollution targets.
[4] European Environment Agency. (2023). Safe and sustainable chemicals.
[5] Defra (2022). Resources and Waste Strategy Monitoring Progress.
[6] Tian, P., et al. (2024). Keeping the global consumption within the planetary boundaries. Nature
[7] Chief Medical Officer’s Annual Report. (2022). Air pollution.
[8] Particulate matter arises directly from sources such as industrial processes and product use, fossil fuelled vehicles, tyre and brake wear, and the combustion of biomass for domestic heating, as well as forming in atmosphere from chemicals emitted by sources such as agricultural activities. Defra. (2024). Accredited official statistics. Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) and Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Ammonia (NH3). Oxides of nitrogen arise from sources such fossil fuelled vehicles and manufacturing and construction industries. Defra. (2024). Accredited official statistics. Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere from oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds from human and natural sources (PN 691, CBP-9000). Defra. (2024). Accredited official statistics. Emissions of air pollutants in the UK – Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs).
[9] Indoor pollutant sources include building materials, cooking and heating appliances, consumer products, occupant activities, damp and mould, and the land on which buildings are sited (PB 54).
[10] UK Government. Ethnicity facts and figures – Socioeconomic status. GOV UK
[11] Office for National Statistics. (2021). The National Statistics Socio-economic classification (NS-SEC)
[12] House of Commons Library. (2024). Poverty in the UK: statistics.
[13] The Office for Environmental Protection. (2024). A review of implementation of the water framework directive regulations and river basin management planning in England.
[14] Environment Agency. (2024). Environment Agency publishes storm overflow spill data for 2023. GOV UK
[15] Wear, S. et al. (2021). Sewage pollution, declining ecosystem health, and cross-sector collaboration. Biological Conservation, Volume 255,109010
[16] European Environment Agency. (2024). Long-term impacts of sludge spreading on agricultural land (Signal)
[17] Marine Conservation Society. (2021). Sewage sludge: Why we need to stop pollution at source
[18] Lofty, J. et al. (2022). Microplastics removal from a primary settler tank in a wastewater treatment plant and estimations of contamination onto European agricultural land via sewage sludge recycling. Environmental Pollution, Volume 304, 119198
[19] Scottish Government. (2021). Spreading of sewage sludge to land – impacts on human health and environment (CR/2016/23): project summary.
[20] Office for Environmental Protection. (2024). Progress in improving the natural environment in England 2022/2023.
[21] House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts. (2023). Government’s programme of waste reforms.
[22] Defra. (2024). Official Statistics. UK statistics on waste. GOV UK
[23] Defra. (2024). Official Statistics. Fly-tipping statistics for England, 2022 to 2023. GOV UK
[24] The EU environmental foresight system (FORENV). (2022). Final report of 2020-21 annual cycle emerging issues impacting the delivery of a zero-pollution ambition by 2050 : emerging issues impacting the delivery of a zero-pollution ambition by 2050
[25] Park, Y., et al. (2022). Personal exposure monitoring using GPS-enabled portable air pollution sensors: A strategy to promote citizen awareness and behavioral changes regarding indoor and outdoor air pollution. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, volume 33, pg 347–357
[26] European Commission. (2024). Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation
[27] Velenturf, A., et al. (2019). Circular economy and the matter of integrated resources. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 689, pg 963-969
[28] Bocken, N., et al. (2016). Towards a sufficiency-driven business model: Experiences and opportunities. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, Volume 18, pg 41-61
[29] Montag, L. (2023). Circular Economy and Supply Chains: Definitions, Conceptualizations, and Research Agenda of the Circular Supply Chain Framework. Circular Economy and Sustainability, Volume 3, pg 35–75
[30] Defra. (2023). Maximising Resources, Minimising Waste: policy summary table. GOV UK
[31] Defra. (2023). The waste prevention programme for England: Maximising Resources, Minimising Waste. GOV UK
[32] Hansard Waste Crime: Staffordshire, Volume 753: debated on Thursday 5 September 2024
[33] Shosha, A. (2024). New government circular economy strategy reportedly under development. ENDs Report
[34] Carr, E., et al. (2024). Getting on track for a circular economy: how the government can avoid mistakes of the past. Green Alliance.
[35] Schroeder, P. et al. (2019). The Relevance of Circular Economy Practices to the Sustainable Development Goals. Journal of Industrial Ecology, Volume 23, Issue 1, pg 77-95
[36] Velenturf, A. et al. (2021). Principles for a sustainable circular economy. Sustainable Production and Consumption, Volume 27, pg 1437-1457
[37] Velenturf, A. et al. (2017). Resource Recovery from Waste: Restoring the Balance between Resource Scarcity and Waste Overload. Sustainability, 9(9), 1603
[38] UN Sustainable Development Goals. (2023). Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
[39] Schroeder, P. et al. (2024). How the circular economy can revive the Sustainable Development Goals. Chatham House
[40] Defra. (2023). Consultation outcome. Summary of responses. GOV UK
[41] Green Alliance. (2021). Building a circular economy How a new approach to infrastructure can put an end to waste
[42] Green Alliance. (2021). Less in, more out. Using resource efficiency to cut carbon and benefit the economy.
[43] Green Alliance (2021). Targeting success: why the UK needs a new vision for resource use
[44] Velenturf, A. (2019). The National Materials Datahub Can Improve Governance for Better Material Use by Industry: An Evidence Briefing from the Resource Recovery from Waste Programme. Resource Recovery from Waste
[45] Scientists Coalition. (2024). Policy Brief: The Essential Use Concept for the Global Plastics Treaty
[46] Bergmann, M. (2022). A global plastic treaty must cap production. Science, Vol 376, Issue 6592 pg. 469-470
[47] Millward-Hopkins, J., et al. (2023). A material flow analysis of the UK clothing economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 407, 137158
[48] Zero Waste Europe. (2023). A Zero Waste Vision for Fashion – Chapter 1: All We Need Is Less
[49] European Commission. (2023). Green claims
[50] UNEP. (2023). The Sustainable Fashion Communication Playbook
[51] Palacios-Mateo, C. (2021). Analysis of the polyester clothing value chain to identify key intervention points for sustainability. Environmental Sciences Europe, volume 33, Article number: 2
[52] European Commission. (2023). EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles
[53] UAL: Centre for sustainable fashion. Managing transition in the UK fashion sector
[54] UAL: Centre for sustainable fashion. (2018). Fashion Ecologies
[55] WRAP. (2021). Textiles 2030 Roadmap
[56] Sharma, R., et al. (2023). LCA Studies on Regenerative Agriculture and Regenerative Textiles: Two Routes of Regenerative Cotton. In: Progress on Life Cycle Assessment in Textiles and Clothing.
[57] Ribul, M. (2021). Regenerative Textiles: A Framework for Future Materials Circularity in the Textile Value Chain. Sustainability, 13(24), 13910
[58] Qiao, T., et al. (2024). High tensile regenerated cellulose fibers via cyclic freeze-thawing enabled dissolution in phosphoric acid for textile-to-textile recycling of waste cotton fabrics. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Volume 277, Part 1, 133911
[59] Rissanen, M. et al. (2022). Chemical recycling of hemp waste textiles via the ionic liquid based dry-jet-wet spinning technology. Textile Research Journal. Volume 93 (11-12): pg 2545-2557
[60] Poldner, K., et al. (2023). Aesthetic engagement: material practices of organising towards regenerative futures. In: Handbook of the Circular Economy: Transitions and Transformation
[61] Shahid, M., et al. (2024). Prospects and challenges of recycling and reusing post-consumer garments: A review. Cleaner Engineering and Technology. Volume 19, 100744
[62] Konietzko, J., et al. (2024). Towards regenerative business models: A necessary shift? Sustainable Production and Consumption, Volume 38, Pages 372-388
[63] Badhoutiya, A. (2023). Regenerative Manufacturing: Crafting a Sustainable Future through Design and Production. E3S Web Conf., Volume 453, 01038
[64] Bellato, L., et al. (2023). Regenerative tourism: a state-of-the-art review. Tourism geographies, 1–10
[65] European Parliament. (2022). Persistent pollutants: EU acts to reduce harmful chemicals.
[66] Villarrubia-Gómez, P., et al. (2024). Plastics pollution exacerbates the impacts of all planetary boundaries. One Earth.
[67] UK Health Security Agency. (2023). Chapter 12. Impact of climate change on human exposure to chemicals in the UK. In: Health Effects of Climate Change (HECC) in the UK: 2023 report
[68] Brand, J. et al. (2023). Potential pollution risks of historic landfills in England: Further analysis of climate change impacts. WIREs water, Volume 11, Issue 3, e1706
[69] UNEP. Plastic pollution.
[70] Green, D et al. (2022). The ecological impacts of discarded cigarette butts. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Volume 37, Issue 2, pg 183-192
[71] Green, D., et al. (2023). Disposable e-cigarettes and cigarette butts alter the physiology of an aquatic plant Lemna minor (Lemnaceae). Science of The Total Environment, Volume 892, 164457
[72] Sy, D. (2023). Tobacco industry accountability for marine pollution: country and global estimates. Tobacco Control Published Online First
[73] Green, D., et al. (2023). Time to kick the butt of the most common litter item in the world: Ban cigarette filters. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 865, 161256
[74] Green, D., et al. (2022). The ecological impacts of discarded cigarette butts. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Volume 37, Issue 2, pg 183-192
[75] Green, D. et al. (2019). Cigarette butts have adverse effects on initial growth of perennial ryegrass (gramineae: Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (leguminosae: Trifolium repens L.). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Volume 182, 109418
[76] Defra. (2023). Call for evidence outcome. Summary of responses and government response. GOV UK
[77] Smethurst, S. (2022). EU takes legal steps to tackle cigarette butt pollution. Chartered Institute of Environmental Health.
[78] Riglen, V. (2020). Call to ban single-use plastic cigarette filters. Marine Conservation Society
[79] WHO. (2022). EU ban on microplastics stubs out cigarette butt pollution
[80] Defra/DHSC. (2024). Government crackdown on single-use vapes. GOV UK
[81] Boots, B., et al. (2024). Ecotoxicological effects of leachate from e-cigarettes and e-liquid on the performance of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). Environmental Pollution, Volume 348, 123888
[82] Green, D., et al. (2023). Disposable e-cigarettes and cigarette butts alter the physiology of an aquatic plant Lemna minor (Lemnaceae). Science of The Total Environment, Volume 892, 164457
[83] The Environmental Protection (Single-use Vapes) (England) Regulations 2024
[84] Adie, S. (2024). Suez government liaison warns ‘forever chemicals’ stand in the way of zero waste targets. ENDs Report.
[85] Van Dijk, J., et al. (2022). Safe and sustainable by design: A computer-based approach to redesign chemicals for reduced environmental hazards. Chemosphere, Volume 296, 134050
[86] Dias, L., et al. (2024). Multiple criteria decision analysis to support the design of safe and sustainable chemicals and materials. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 916, 169599
[87] Caldeira, C., et al. (2023). Safe and sustainable chemicals and materials: a review of sustainability assessment frameworks. Green Chem., 26, 7456-7477
[88] The Royal Society. (2024). Catalysing change: Defossiling the chemical industry
[89] Rotzokou, E. (2023). Digital product passports: Europe takes the lead in sustainable growth. Circular
[90] European Parliamentary Research Service. (2024). Digital product passport for the textile sector. Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA)
[91] Costa, A, et al. (2024). Materials Passports: Accelerating Material Reuse in Construction. Lancaster University
[92] UKGBC. (2023). Material Passport Platform
[93] Orms. How can Material Passports support material reuse of existing buildings?
[94] Kanaris, S. (2023). Material passports trial in London could trigger UK materials database creation. New Civil Engineer
[95] Neglian, A., et al. (2023). Digital Product Passport as Enabler for the Circular Economy. IW Report 47/2023
[96] Van Eijk, F, et al. (2023). Chemical Recycling in circular perspective. Holland Circular Hotspot, The Netherlands Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, The Network Chemical Recycling of the Circular Biobased Delta, TNO, Chemport Europe, Chemelot Circular Hub, Chemistry NL and Infinity Recycling
[97] Regulatory Policy Committee. (2024). Product Regulation and Metrology Bill: impact assessment – RPC opinion (green-rated). GOV UK
[98] Parliamentary Bills. (2024). Product Regulation and Metrology Bill [HL]
[99] Adie, S. (2024). New bill to align UK product standards with the EU lacks provisions for chemicals, say peers
[100] Delaeter, C., et al. (2022). Plastic leachates: Bridging the gap between a conspicuous pollution and its pernicious effects on marine life. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 826, 154091
[101] Fries, E., et al. (2023). The unusual suspects: Screening for persistent, mobile, and toxic plastic additives in plastic leachates. Environmental Pollution, Volume 335, 122263
[102] Vlaanderen, E., et al. (2023). Plastic leachate exposure drives antibiotic resistance and virulence in marine bacterial communities. Environmental Pollution, Volume 327, 121558
[103] Garmbardella, C., et al. (2024). New insights into the impact of leachates from in-field collected plastics on aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates. Environmental Pollution, Volume 355, 124233
[104] Weis, J., et al. (2023). (Micro)Plastics Are Toxic Pollutants. Toxics, 11(11), 935
[105] Novotna, K., et al. (2023). Continuous long-term monitoring of leaching from microplastics into ambient water – A multi-endpoint approach. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 444, Part A, 130424
[106] European Environment Agency. (2023). Human exposure to Bisphenol A in Europe.
[107] Gilles, L., et al. (2021). HBM4EU combines and harmonises human biomonitoring data across the EU, building on existing capacity – The HBM4EU survey. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Volume 237, 113809
[108] Geueke, B., et al. 2024. Evidence for widespread human exposure to food contact chemicals. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology
[109] European Chemicals Agency. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).
[110] European Union. (2024). Commission Regulation (EU) 2024/2462 of 19 September 2024 amending Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards undecafluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), its salts and PFHxA-related substances.
[111] Courtene-Jones, W., et al. (2024). Are Biobased Microfibers Less Harmful than Conventional Plastic Microfibers: Evidence from Earthworms. Ecotoxicology and Public Health
[112] Scientists’ Coalition for an Effective Plastics Treaty. (2023). Policy Brief: The global plastics treaty: What is the role of bio-based plastic, biodegradable plastic and bioplastic?
[113] UNEP. (2021). From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution
[114] Venancio, C. et al. (2022). Bioplastics: known effects and potential consequences to marine and estuarine ecosystem services. Chemosphere, Volume 309, Part 2, 136810
[115] Spierling, S., et al. (2018). Bio-based plastics – A review of environmental, social and economic impact assessments. Journal of Cleaner Production Volume 185, pg 476-491
[116] Staplevan, M. et al. (2024). Impact of bioplastic contamination on the mechanical recycling of conventional plastics. Waste Management, Volume 185, pg 1-9
[117] Majgaonkar, P. et al. (2021). Chemical Recycling of Post-Consumer PLA Waste for Sustainable Production of Ethyl Lactate. Chemical Engineering Journal, Volume 423, 129952
[118] POST. (2021). Biological solutions for environmental challenges. Horizon Scanning.
[119] Savage, N. (2023). How to take ‘forever’ out of forever chemicals. Nature Outlook
[120] Zhou, B., et al. (2023). Microbial-Based Heavy Metal Bioremediation: Toxicity and Eco-Friendly Approaches to Heavy Metal Decontamination. Appl. Sci., 13(14), 8439
[121] Berhanu, A., et al. (2023). A review of microbial degradation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): Biotransformation routes and enzymes. Science of The Total Environment Volume 859, Part 1, 160010
[122] Cai, Z., et al. (2023). Biological Degradation of Plastics and Microplastics: A Recent Perspective on Associated Mechanisms and Influencing Factors. Microorganisms, 11(7), 1661
[123] Bertocchini, F. et al. (2023). Why have we not yet solved the challenge of plastic degradation by biological means? PLOS Biol 21(3): e3001979
[124] Cheng, Y., et al. (2024). Electrothermal mineralization of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances for soil remediation. Nature Communications volume 15, Article number: 6117
[125] Pinkard, B. et al. (2023). Destruction of PFAS in AFFF-impacted fire training pit water, with a continuous hydrothermal alkaline treatment reactor. Chemosphere, Volume 314, 137681
[126] Sidnell, T., et al. (2022). Sonolysis of per- and poly fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): A meta-analysis. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, Volume 87, 105944
[127] Kumar, P., et al. (2023). Efficient Adsorption of Toxic Heavy Metal Ions on the Surface Engineered Violuric Acid-Reduced Graphene Oxide. ACS Applied Engineering Materials, Vol 1, Issue 5, Nanomaterial
[128] Zhang, Q. et al. (2022). Metal–Organic Frameworks and Their Composites for Environmental Applications. Advanced Science, Volume 9, Issue 32
[129] UKRI Interdisciplinary Centre for Circular Chemical Economy. About.
[130] Arun, M., et al. (2024). Exploration of material recovery framework from waste – A revolutionary move towards clean environment. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, Volume 18, 100589
[131] Mishra, K., et al. (2023). Waste-to-chemicals: Green solutions for bioeconomy markets. Science of The Total Environment, Volume 887, 164006
[132] Wbscd. (2023). The EU Digital Product Passport shapes the future of value chains: What it is and how to prepare now
[133] McManus, S. (2024). Could product passports revolutionise the way we shop? BBC
[134] British Retail Consortium. (2024). The Benefits and Opportunities of Digital Product Passports
[135] Defra. (2022). Resource efficiency and waste reduction targets. Detailed Evidence report.
[136] Defra. (2022). Environmental targets consultation summary of responses and government response.
[137] Royal Society of Chemistry. (2024). RSC joins call for urgent clarity on chemicals strategy
[138] Chemical Industries Association. (2021). CIA’s 13 Key Asks for the UK Chemicals Strategy
[139] Wildlife and Countryside Link. (2022). A UK Chemicals Strategy That’s Fit for Purpose
[140] Nayak, N. (2024). ‘Dynamic system’: Senior HSE official sets out chemicals divergence ambitions. ENDs Report.
Photo by: Overview on Adobe Stock
