Table of contents
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58248/HS116
Overview
The horizon scan identified housing insecurity and related issues as likely being relevant during this parliament. Many researchers, politicians and sector stakeholders agree that there are widespread problems in housing, including around quality, unaffordability and homelessness.[1] POST’s horizon scanning article on affordable housing has more information on this topic.
Housing policy is devolved. This article focuses on housing insecurity in England.
Although there is no standard definition of ‘housing insecurity’, the concept can be useful in supporting discussions about these challenges and what can be done to address them.[2]
Multiple studies describe housing insecurity as an individual or household having experienced, or being at risk of, multiple, involuntary house moves related to poverty.[3][4][5][6]
There are many interconnected dimensions to housing insecurity,[7] which evidence links to poor mental and physical health outcomes, including:
- unaffordability of housing costs relative to income[8][9][10][11][12][13]
- compromise of personal safety and/or health by poor quality housing and overcrowding[14][15][16][17]
- tenure insecurity (meaning limited protection from eviction and involuntary moves)[18][19][20]
- emergency or temporary accommodation and homelessness[21][22][23]
Having a low income, and experiencing poverty, increase the likelihood of experiencing housing insecurity.[24][25][26][27] Groups characterised by ethnicity, migration status[28], age, gender, sexual orientation, and disability may experience housing insecurity in different ways.[29][30][31][32][33][34][35] Homelessness is often preceded by housing insecurity.[36]
Housing costs have risen faster than incomes, affecting some areas (such as London and the south east of England) more than others.[37][38] In 2023, the average home in England cost more than eight times the average full-time worker’s salary, up from 3.6 times earnings in 1997, with the gap between earnings and house prices particularly pronounced in London.[39][40][41] Average private rents grew by 9.3% in England in the 12 months to November 2024, and 11.6% in London, while national annual average wage growth was 5.2%.[42][43][44]
Housing unaffordability disproportionately impacts low-income households, with private renters more likely to be negatively impacted than social renters and owner-occupiers.[45][46][47] The Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Committee’s 2024 report into Shared Ownership stated that shared ownership products “can become unaffordable over time” because of repairs and maintenance costs.[48]
Researchers and commentators in the media have suggested that ‘gentrification’ in London, a process where urban areas are ‘regenerated’ or ‘upgraded’, is causing largescale displacement of lower income and minority ethnic communities. These groups can then become disconnected from social connections and support as their neighbourhoods become too expensive for them to live in.[49][50][51][52][53]
In addition to focusing on the overall number of homes delivered, research indicates that providing different types of homes and tenures, which meet a range of housing requirements, may be effective.[54][55]
Many researchers and organisations working in the sector agree that increasing social rented housing supply can be an effective way to address housing inequality, and rising homelessness.[56][57][58] Social rented homes are the most affordable form of rented housing,[59][60][61] with rents typically set at around 50% of market levels.[62] Evidence indicates they are more likely to meet the decent homes standard than private rented or owned housing.[63]
However, there are barriers to increasing provision of social housing, including around how these are funded,[64] and how to meet demand.[65][66][67][68]
As social housing is limited, some researchers indicate that addressing homelessness will depend more on solutions in the private rented sector (PRS).[69] However, research has suggested that loss of an assured shorthold tenancy (AST) – the most common form of PRS tenancy – is a leading trigger, or immediate precursor, for statutory homelessness in England.[70]
Some researchers have challenged the idea that the loss of ASTs is a cause of increased homelessness. They have suggested that factors such as housing unaffordability and undersupply are the true drivers.[71]
Multiple analyses show how restrictions to financial support through the benefit system have limited low-income private renters to a decreasing proportion of the market, particularly in some areas, which tends to lead to lower tenure security and poorer living conditions.[72][73][74][75][76][77]
Limited availability of suitable PRS homes that are affordable for people on low incomes is increasing local authorities’ use of temporary accommodation[78], including bed and breakfast accommodation. This has known health and social consequences, especially for children.[79]
At the end of September 2024, there were 126,040 households, including 164,040 children, living in temporary accommodation provided by their local authority.[80] The figures are the highest since records began in 1998.[81] The Local Government Association has expressed concern about the implications of this on local authority finances.[82][83]
Evidence also indicates that levels of homelessness are increasing in rural areas, which have distinct housing challenges.[84]
Challenges and opportunities
A Renters’ Rights Bill, which was laid before parliament in September 2024, aims to “give greater rights and protections to people renting their homes”.[85][86][87] Challenges may include balancing the protection of tenants’ rights alongside meeting the needs of landlords.
PRS reform is a contentious issue. For example, some political groups and campaigning organisations have called for some form of rent regulation, such as freezing rents or capping increases in line with inflation to stabilise rent growth.[88][89]
Researchers have drawn attention to the importance of ensuring tenants have information about their rights and can access legal advice and support if needed.[90] Researchers have also noted the importance of ensuring local authorities have sufficient capacity and power to enforce standards and requirements, including the quality of landlord management, in the PRS.[91][92]
The Social Housing (Regulation) Act 2023 includes provisions to introduce new regulatory requirements for quality and standards in the social rented sector (known as ‘Awaab’s Law’).[93] The measures are being introduced through a phased approach from October 2025.[94] The government will also consult on a new Decent Homes Standard.[95] The Renters’ Right Bill includes measures to extend ‘Awaab’s Law’ to the PRS.[96]
Commentators point to a range of challenges for delivering affordable homes[97][98] including:
- insufficient grant funding from the government
- financial constraints on housing associations and councils
- the planning system
- the cost and availability of land
- right to buy policy implications, which limit councils’ capacity to replace sold homes[99]
The planning system went through various changes during the last parliament, including introducing new measures to help local authorities buy cheaper land, and making developers more accountable for the speed at which they deliver new homes.[100][101]
In December 2024, an updated National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) reintroduced mandatory housing targets alongside several measures to modernise local planning decision making.[102] The government also announced £14.8 million to support authorities with delivering the revised NPPF requirements.[103]
Following a review of the increased right to buy (RTB) discounts introduced in 2012, the government returned discounts to their pre-2012 levels “to better protect the existing stock of social housing”.[104] In November 2024, the government ran an eight week consultation on a range of proposed reforms to RTB including changing the qualifying criteria and introducing targets for replacing sold homes.[105] Commentators and politicians have suggested a more radical approach is required to prevent the reduction in social housing stock, through a range of means including giving local councils flexibility to shape local schemes.[106][107][108]
In 2023, the government recognised the link between housing circumstances and a range of physical and mental health conditions.[109][110]There has been work across several government departments to tackle the effect of housing insecurity on young people’s mental health.[111]
However, in 2024 the Housing Ombudsman noted a lack of joined-up policy making across health and housing, and argued that housing policy should be re-established as a health intervention alongside a long-term strategy for social housing.[112] Some stakeholders have expressed concern about challenges facing people in insecure housing in later life.[113][114][115]
Key uncertainties and unknowns
A wide body of evidence links various dimensions of housing insecurity to poor health and wellbeing outcomes. However, the complexity of the relationship between drivers of housing insecurity, and their consequences, can create challenges in the development of coherent policy solutions.
There appears to be uncertainty over the extent to which planning reforms can facilitate the scale of social rented housing needed, without addressing the financial constraints of social housing providers who are important contributors to new affordable housing supply.[116]
Key questions for Parliament
- Should the government adopt a definition of housing insecurity to help inform a strategic approach to meeting multiple overlapping social policy objectives?
- The government has confirmed an additional £800 million investment in the Affordable Homes Programme (AHP) to deliver almost 8000 new affordable homes, bringing total investment in the AHP for 2025/26 to over £5 billion.[117][118][119] How will this be delivered, and what challenges and risks may arise?
- How can any proposed new legislation address issues around housing affordability, tenure insecurity, and challenges connected with the shared ownership model?
- How will any proposed new legislation seek to balance the interests and rights of tenants and landlords?
- To what extent will the Affordable Homes Programme and changes to planning policy deliver the social homes needed?
References
[1] House of Lords Built Environment Committee (2022). 1st Report of Session 2021–22. Meeting housing demand. UK Parliament.
[2] Leopold, J. et al. (2016). Improving Measures of Housing Insecurity: A Path Forward. Urban Institute.
[3] Centre for Collaborative Housing Evidence (2024). New project exploring how local authorities can support families experiencing housing insecurity. UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.
[4] Hock, E. et al. (2023). Exploring the impact of housing insecurity on the health and well-being of children and young people: a systematic review. University of Sheffield.
[5] The Children’s Society (2020). Moving, Always Moving. The Children’s Society.
[6] Munro, A. et al. (2022). Evidence Review: Housing and Health Inequalities in London. Institute of Health Equity.
[7] Leopold, J. et al. (2016). Improving Measures of Housing Insecurity: A Path Forward. Urban Institute.
[8] Marmot, M. et al. (2020). Marmot Review 10 Years On. Institute of Health Equity.
[9] Faculty of Public Health (2024). Faculty of Public Health Briefing: Housing, poverty & public health. Faculty of Public Health.
[10] Preece, J. et al. (2019). Housing insecurity and mental health in Wales: an evidence review, University of Sheffield, UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.
[11] Raderman, W. el al. (2022). Unaffordable housing is bad for our health. Understanding Society.
[12] World Health Organization (WHO) (2018). WHO Housing and Health Guidelines. World Health Organization (WHO).
[13] Mason, K. et al (2024) The impact of housing insecurity on mental health, sleep and hypertension: Analysis of the UK Household Longitudinal Study and linked data, 2009–2019 – ScienceDirect, Social Science & Medicine, Volume 351.
[14] Marmot, M. et al. (2020). Marmot Review 10 Years On. Institute of Health Equity.
[15] Sierra N. et al. (2023). The Burden of Respiratory Disease from Formaldehyde, Damp and Mould in English Housing, Environments – MDPI, 10(8), Article 136.
[16] The Health Foundation (2024). Relationship between living in overcrowded homes and mental health. The Health Foundation.
[17] Shelter (2005). Full house? How Overcrowded Housing Affects Families. Shelter.
[18] Marmot, M. et al. (2020). Marmot Review 10 Years On. Institute of Health Equity.
[19] Raderman, W. el al. (2022). Unaffordable housing is bad for our health. Understanding Society.
[20] World Health Organization (WHO) (2018). WHO Housing and Health Guidelines. World Health Organization (WHO).
[21] Marmot, M. et al. (2020). Marmot Review 10 Years On. Institute of Health Equity.
[22] Stafford, A. et al. (2017). Tackling Health Disparities for People Who Are Homeless? Start with Social Determinants. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017 Dec; 14(12): 1535.
[23] Lewer, D. et al. (2019). Health-related quality of life and prevalence of six chronic diseases in homeless and housed people: a cross-sectional study in London and Birmingham, England. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e025192.
[24] Faculty of Public Health (2024). Faculty of Public Health Briefing: Housing, poverty & public health. Faculty of Public Health.
[25] Green, S. et al (2022) Tackling Tenancy Insecurity in the Private Rented Sector. What works to prevent homelessness?. Centre for Homelessness Impact. p12.
[26] The Health Foundation (2020). Overcrowding is highest for those with low incomes. COVID-19 chart series. The Health Foundation.
[27] Ranmal, R. et al. (2021). How do Health Inequalities Intersect with Housing and Homelessness?. European Journal of Homelessness, Volume 15, Issue 3 – 2021, 22.
[28] Robathan, J. (2024). Refugee homelessness has increased by 350% over the past year in England, new figures show. Inside Housing.
[29] Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2021). What’s causing structural racism in housing?. Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
[30] Lowe, G. (2023). Cost of living puts pressure on young people’s housing and mental health. Centre for Homelessness Impact.
[31] Youth Select Committee 2024 (2024). The impact of the cost of living crisis on young people. UK Parliament.
[32] Intergenerational Foundation (2023). Is housing anxiety the norm for young people?. Intergenerational Foundation.
[33] Homeless Link (2022). Exploring Women’s Homelessness – what we know. Homeless Link.
[34] World Health Organization (WHO) (2018). WHO Housing and Health Guidelines. World Health Organization (WHO).
[35] Provan, B. and Lane, L. (2023), The Social and Economic Value of Wheelchair User Homes, LSE Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion.
[36] Fairbrother H, et al. (2023). Exploring the impact of housing insecurity on the health and well-being of children and young people: a systematic review. Southampton (UK): National Institute for Health and Care Research. Public Health Research, No. 11.13.
[37] London School of Economics (2023). How can we make homes more affordable?. London School of Economics.
[38] Mulheirn, I. (2019). Tackling the UK housing crisis: is supply the answer?. UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.
[39] Murdock, M. (2023). House prices: the average London home now costs 14 times the typical household income. The Standard.
[40] Office for National Statistics (2024). Housing affordability in England and Wales: 2023.
[41] Office for National Statistics (2017. Housing affordability in England and Wales: 2016.
[42] Office of National Statistics (2024) Private rent and house prices, UK: December 2024.
[43] Office of National Statistics (2024) Average weekly earnings in Great Britain: December 2024.
[44] Annual growth in regular earnings (excluding bonuses) over August to October 2024 compared with the same period in 2023. Office for National Statistics (2024). Average weekly earnings in Great Britain: December 2024.
[45] The Health Foundation (2024). Inequalities in housing affordability. The Health Foundation.
[46] Waters, T. et al. (2023). Housing quality and affordability for lower-income households. Institute for Fiscal Studies.
[47] London Assembly (2023) Local Housing Allowance Rates | London City Hall.
[48] Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Committee (2024). Shared Ownership. Fifth Report of Session 2023–24. UK Parliament.
[49] Urban Displacement Project (no date). London – Gentrification and Displacement. Urban Displacement Project.
[50] Corcillo, P. et al (2022). Social mixing or mixophobia in regenerating East London? ‘Affordable housing’, gentrification, stigmatisation and the post-Olympics East Village. People, Place and Policy, 16(3), pp. 236-254.
[51] Smith, D (no date). A Compact City for the Wealthy? Gentrification and Employment Accessibility Inequalities in London. London School of Economics.
[52] Almeida, A. (2021). Pushed to the Margins: A quantitative analysis of gentrification in London in the 2010s. Trust for London.
[53] London Post (2023). £8 for a Pint: The Impact of Gentrification in London. London Post.
[54] Grayston, R. (2021). Squeezed out: The impact of build costs and planning reform on social housing supply in England. New Economics Foundation.
[55] Beswick, J. et al (2019). Building the social homes we need. New Economics Foundation.
[56] Munro, A. et al. (2022). Evidence Review: Housing and Health Inequalities in London. Institute of Health Equity.
[57] Shelter (2021). Levelling up with social housing (PDF). Shelter.
[58] Fitzpatrick, S. El al (2023). The Homelessness Monitor: England 2023. Crisis.
[59] Shelter (2024) Living in a social home is over 60% more affordable than private renting. Shelter England.
[60] National Housing Federation (2024) The economic impact of building social housing. National Housing Federation.
[61] Cromarty, H. et al. (2024). Social rented housing in England: Past trends and prospects. House of Commons Library.
[62] Cromarty, H. et al. (2024). Social rented housing in England: Past trends and prospects. House of Commons Library.
[63] Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (2023). Chapters for English Housing Survey 2022 to 2023 Headline Report. Chapter 4: Dwelling condition. The Decent Homes Standard is a non-statutory measurement of housing quality applied in the social rented sector by the Regulator of Social Housing.
[64] Cromarty, H. et al. (2024). Social rented housing in England: Past trends and prospects. House of Commons Library.
[65] Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (2024). Social housing lettings in England, tenants: April 2022 to March 2023. Gov.uk
[66] National Housing Federation (2023). The housing crisis: what will happen if we don’t act?. National Housing Federation.
[67] Bramley, G. (2018). Housing supply requirements across Great Britain. Crisis.
[68] Bramley, G. (2024). Housing Requirements in England Revisited. Heriot-Watt University.
[69] Green, S. et al (2022) Tackling Tenancy Insecurity in the Private Rented Sector. What works to prevent homelessness?. Centre for Homelessness Impact.
[70] Green, S. et al (2022) Tackling Tenancy Insecurity in the Private Rented Sector. What works to prevent homelessness?. Centre for Homelessness Impact.
[71] Rhodes, D. et al. (2018). Vulnerability amongst Low-Income Households in the Private Rented Sector in England. University of York.
[72] London Assembly (2023). Local Housing Allowance Rates | London City Hall
[73] Crisis (2022). Properties affordable on housing benefit have declined by a third in the last five months – down to just 8%. Crisis.
[74] Savills (2024). Local Housing Allowance: what can claimants afford?. Savills.
[75] Rugg, J. et al. (2008). The Private Rented Sector: its contribution and potential. University of York.
[76] Policy in Practice (2022). Mind the benefit cap: why families are still falling through our welfare system. Policy in Practice.
[77] Fransham, M. et al (2024), Capped and trapped (in the UK’s housing market): how the benefit cap makes it almost impossible to find affordable housing. London School of Economics and Political Science.
[78] Some stakeholders have raised concerns temporary accommodation might not be in the borough in which the people lived due to lack of suitable provision locally. See Cuffe, G (2023): Sent away: the social rent shortage is driving London councils to move more homeless people out of the city. Inside Housing.
[79] Green, S. et al (2022). Tackling Tenancy Insecurity in the Private Rented Sector. What works to prevent homelessness?. Centre for Homelessness Impact.
[80] Temporary accommodation means any housing provided to a person and their household in exercise of a statutory function under part 7 Housing Act 1996. MHCLG (2025). Tables on homelessness, Statutory homelessness in England: July to September 2024, Table TA1. Gov.uk
[81] MHCLG (2025). Tables on homelessness, Statutory homelessness England level time series “live tables”, Table TA01. Gov.uk
[82] Local Government Association (2023). £1.74 billion spent supporting 104,000 households in temporary accommodation. Local Government Association.
[83] Local Government Association (2025). Spending Review: £76 million funding gap in councils’ temporary accommodation budgets. Local Government Association.
[84] Tunaker, C. et al. (2023). Homelessness in the countryside: A hidden crisis. University of Kent.
[85] MLCLG (2025) Guide to the Renters’ Rights Bill. Gov.uk
[86] UK Parliament (no date). Renters’ Rights Bill.
[87] The Prime Minister’s Office (2024). The King’s Speech 2024. Gov.uk
[88] Cowan, S. (2024). Independent review of the private rented sector. Labour housing group.
[89] London Renters Union (2023). #RentFreezeNow open letter [to Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Michael Gove]. London Renters Union.
[90] Soaita, A. et al. (2022). Housing challenges faced by low income and other vulnerable privately renting households: An evidence review. UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.
[91] Rugg, J. (2020). London borough’s management of the private rented sector. University of York.
[92] Marsh, A. et al. (2019). The private rented sector in the UK: An overview of the policy and regulatory landscape. UK Collaborative Centre for Housing Evidence.
[93] ‘Awaab’s law’ refers to measures introduced via section 42 of the Social Housing (Regulation) Act 2023. In December 2020, 2-year-old Awaab Ishaak died as a result of a respiratory condition caused by prolonged exposure to damp and mould in his home. Awaab’s law will require social landlords to fix reported health hazards within specified timeframes.
[94] UK Government (2025) Awaab’s Law to force landlords to fix dangerous homes. Gov.uk
[95] UK Government (2025) Awaab’s Law to force landlords to fix dangerous homes Gov.uk
[96] Prime Minister’s Office (2024). King’s Speech 2024: background briefing notes. Gov.uk
[97] House of Commons Library (2024), Affordable housing in England (parliament.uk). UK Parliament.
[98] MHCLG (2024), Guide to the Renters’ Rights Bill – Awaab’s Law. Gov.uk
[99] Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Committee (2024). The Finances and Sustainability of the Social Housing Sector. Sixth Report of Session 2023–24. UK Parliament.
[100] Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (2024). New powers for councils to help build more affordable homes. Gov.uk.
[101] Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (2024). Levelling Up and Regeneration Act 2023: progress on implementing build out measures. Gov.uk.
[102] MHCLG (2024). National Planning Policy Framework. Gov.uk
[103] MHCLG (2024). Funding to support local authorities with the costs of local plan delivery and Green Belt reviews, Gov.uk
[104] MHCLG (2024). A review of the increased Right to Buy discounts introduced in 2012. Gov.uk
[105] MHCLG (2024). Reforming the Right to Buy. Gov.uk
[106] Local Government Association (2024). Right to Buy needs reform to avoid social housing stock losses. Local Government Association.
[107] BBC News (2024). Andy Burnham wants to suspend Right to Buy scheme. BBC News.
[108] Diner, A. Et al. (2024). Reforming right to buy. Options for preserving and delivering new council homes for the twenty-first century. New Economics Foundation.
[109] Department of Health and Social Care (2023). Mental health and wellbeing plan: discussion paper. Gov.uk
[110] Department of Health and Social Care (2023). Major conditions strategy: case for change and our strategic framework. Gov.uk
[111] The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Health and Social Care (2023). House of Commons debate on Young People’s Mental Health: Housing. 11 July 2023. Column 165.
[112] Housing Ombudsman Service (2024). Spotlight on attitudes, respect and rights – relationship of equals. Housing Ombudsman Service.
[113] Age UK (2019) Older homelessness (England). Age UK.
[114] Age UK London (2017) “Living in Fear: Experiences of Older Private-Renters in London”. Age UK London.
[115] Independent Age (2023). Hidden renters: The unseen faces of the rising older rental wave. Independent Age.
[116] Levelling Up, Housing and Communities Committee (2024). The Finances and Sustainability of the Social Housing Sector. Sixth Report of Session 2023–24. UK Parliament.
[117] HCWS169, [Social and Affordable Housing: Next Steps], 28 October 2024.
[118] UK Government (2025) Thousands to benefit from the security of a safe home. Gov.uk
[119] HCWS447, [Further support for social and affordable housebuilding and next steps on supported housing], 12 February 2025.
